Improving Transactional Processing in Accounting Information Systems Research Paper

Improving Transactional Processing in Accounting Information Systems - Research Paper Example Transaction is an instance of doing business of any kind and may include buying of stocks from a security market and consumable goods at from a retail shop. In all the instances, there is exchange of money for goods or services. During the transactions, the need to keep the record of transactions increases, in order to be able to monitor the performance of the business. Businesses have adopted several strategies of maintaining their records, preparing forms and reports for financial purposes such as tax among others (Mattessich, 1998). These records are a part of the entire Information System maintained by a business. For a business to remain in market there must be a well set out Information System that enables all the stakeholders to interact with, and benefit from the available information. These systems have further been adopted into accounting due to efficiency, in some cases due to integrity. There has been an upward development of how accounting is carried out since the dawn of civilization. These changes have been necessitated by the tremendous growth of business transactions. Sometimes, the changes have been as a result of complexities involved in these transactions (Mattessich, 1998). With the emergence of technology in the past years, business operations have been affected. This includes how transactions are handled and the parties that are involved. It is however important to note that although technology may be disadvantageous in some cases, its adoption has greatly improved operations of businesses in general and more benefits can be realized should technology be monitored effectively (CBS Library, 2011). From the old days of Mesopotamia, ancient people kept records of businesses using clay tablets where they inscribed details of transactions (Mattessich, 1998). The inefficiency of such record keeping has over the years, pushed people to develop new methods

MANAGING YOUTH WORK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MANAGING YOUTH WORK - Essay Example The importance of making a living is repeatedly told by the parents so that their children can understand that they have to earn sooner and later in their lives. Additionally the philosophy of work is worship is also quite prevalent in developed nations and therefore elders encourage the next generation towards living a productive life in the community. The above mentioned positive attitude is indeed helping strong economies in maintaining a higher level of living standards. When the majority of the individuals make their own living then the burden of the society divides that causes a notable improvement in the community. But in case of underdeveloped or developing country's skilled labor and highly educated people are rare and therefore the responsibility of economic welfare of four to ten people resides on the shoulders of one individual. The aforementioned condition is causing a significant hindrance in the process of fiscal development as more than seventy percent of the workforc e is unwilling to work at all. The lack of education is also considered as a leading cause of poor economic conditions in the third world (O’Higgins, 2003 pp 8). ... ished to foster certain types of professional behaviors in the youth while they are trained to implement creativity and newness in the upcoming corporate world. The professors and trainers also highlight the role of technology in the modern day business world. Youngsters are also guided to consider technological development as a friend whereas they are encouraged to embrace it when performing their responsibilities in the practical arena. The investments in youth developmental programs are ideal for those cultures where people are willing and committed towards sharing their knowledge with others. But in developing nations experienced professionals feel reluctant regarding knowledge sharing with others because they fear that their own skill set will become obsolete if they share it. Yet according to modern research if a person shares his or her knowledge with others then he or she might gather new information as well. The ability to share knowledge and its benefits are explained in So cial Exchange Theory that is identified as one of the fundamentals of modern management (Emerson, 1976 pp 347). The companies operating in developed economies play their role in supporting youth development with the help of offering internship programs so that they can train the next generation of corporate soldiers to say the least. Literature Review According to contemporary research on the topic of youth work, it is quite evident that the nations that use these kinds of programs as a source of development in youth end up with an excellent workforce for the future (Larson, 2000 pp 181). The nations that are deploying the concept of youth work include the names of America and England (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 2004 pp 111) whereas in developing nations Malaysia and

American Foreign Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

American Foreign Policy - Essay Example The country's founding fathers seem to have given overlapping powers to Legislature and Executive, and this led Edwin Corwin to say that both branches are expected "to struggle for the privilege of directing American Foreign Policy." This has naturally resulted in Executive and Legislature sharing foreign policy decisions. It has also resulted in a kind of competition and jealous guarding of their spaces, which has led to unpleasant bickering many times. Constitution has laid down these principles as an effective check against each other's power, and the hope of a highly gratifying foreign policy that would be helpful not only to America but also to the rest of the world, as America is a huge and powerful nation. They had not foreseen that America would become the only superpower, but they had definitely foreseen that it would be an influential power in the world, that would have a definite say in world matters. These thinkers want clout to be a very positive one. To a very large ext ent, they have attained their wish, though it leads to one-upmanship very often, especially when the incumbent in the White House is not a visionary. America had gained her independence much before any other colonies and her only rival in those years was Britain in world affairs. Slowly when British power diminished after two world wars, America more or less conducted her foreign affairs on her own terms and this made the American President an invincible and all-powerful personality on the world stage. But at home, there had always been a slight, sometimes more pronounced tug of war between the Executive and Legislature, which worked as an effective check during times of stress, and an irritant, sometimes even a definite threat during other. Treaties in the US are entirely executive agreements. American presidents have made many international agreements through Congressional-Executive Agreements and only the President has the power to do so. These have to be ratified by only the maj ority in both the Houses. Some constitutional scholars have said that these CEAs are unconstitutional, but the Supreme Court has upheld their validity. Once these agreements are reached they are binding while these procedural acceptances go on.  Foreign policy is the politics of shared power between executive and legislature and these two have to maintain the balance.   The extent to which the executive power touches the foreign policy had always been a matter of controversy. Today there are many pragmatic and constitutional arguments trying to fix the boundaries of executive power on war, national security and treaty interpretation.   "Finally, the President has broad residual power over foreign affairs, but that power does not extend to matters not part of the traditional executive power. Accordingly, the President cannot claim lawmaking or appropriations power in foreign affairs. American foreign policy still runs with an institutional approach where the powerful executive sometimes takes the center stage, or a less powerful one allows the Legislature to take an upper hand.  

MANAGING YOUTH WORK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MANAGING YOUTH WORK - Essay Example The importance of making a living is repeatedly told by the parents so that their children can understand that they have to earn sooner and later in their lives. Additionally the philosophy of work is worship is also quite prevalent in developed nations and therefore elders encourage the next generation towards living a productive life in the community. The above mentioned positive attitude is indeed helping strong economies in maintaining a higher level of living standards. When the majority of the individuals make their own living then the burden of the society divides that causes a notable improvement in the community. But in case of underdeveloped or developing country's skilled labor and highly educated people are rare and therefore the responsibility of economic welfare of four to ten people resides on the shoulders of one individual. The aforementioned condition is causing a significant hindrance in the process of fiscal development as more than seventy percent of the workforc e is unwilling to work at all. The lack of education is also considered as a leading cause of poor economic conditions in the third world (O’Higgins, 2003 pp 8). ... ished to foster certain types of professional behaviors in the youth while they are trained to implement creativity and newness in the upcoming corporate world. The professors and trainers also highlight the role of technology in the modern day business world. Youngsters are also guided to consider technological development as a friend whereas they are encouraged to embrace it when performing their responsibilities in the practical arena. The investments in youth developmental programs are ideal for those cultures where people are willing and committed towards sharing their knowledge with others. But in developing nations experienced professionals feel reluctant regarding knowledge sharing with others because they fear that their own skill set will become obsolete if they share it. Yet according to modern research if a person shares his or her knowledge with others then he or she might gather new information as well. The ability to share knowledge and its benefits are explained in So cial Exchange Theory that is identified as one of the fundamentals of modern management (Emerson, 1976 pp 347). The companies operating in developed economies play their role in supporting youth development with the help of offering internship programs so that they can train the next generation of corporate soldiers to say the least. Literature Review According to contemporary research on the topic of youth work, it is quite evident that the nations that use these kinds of programs as a source of development in youth end up with an excellent workforce for the future (Larson, 2000 pp 181). The nations that are deploying the concept of youth work include the names of America and England (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 2004 pp 111) whereas in developing nations Malaysia and

Career Development Plan Part III Performance and Career Management Essay

Career Development Plan Part III Performance and Career Management week 4 - Essay Example The reason this is a great assessment to use is that it takes into consideration feedback from customers, the individual and their manager. This gives them a well rounded evaluation and carries more than a one sided approach. According to Focal 360 the purpose of the 360 feedback is to give employees confidential and anonymous feedback from the people around them. This allows the individual to understand at every level what they are doing right and what can be improved. This assessment could give employees a baseline of information to work from and they could then develop their own specific goals because of it. From this type of feedback we can develop individual goals that fit the employees needs. This would also encourage managers to work with each individual employee in a way that is without prejudice or judgment to the employee. We will also have to help manage dual career families. According to Human Resource Chapter 1 the employer should add some sort of childcare to the process. At the current time we do not have a budget for this but it could be something that we put in the plans for another time. We will also have to take into consideration that the timing of an advancement for an employee may not be right for their family, so we would want to offer them the advance at another time if they are a duo-career family (Human Resources, Chapter 10, p. 380). This would help us become a more "family friendly" organization. We can have available an audio program online that new hires can listen to who have not had the benefit of the training that we have planned for the group. The consultant has agreed to help us with this situation as an addition piece of the training if we would like it. Another element of training should be the opportunity to go to conferences and tradeshows. Although the company does not have the money to send them perhaps we could look at a reimbursement program for college

Investigating the Possibility of a Developmental Trend in the Way That Children Describe Themselves Essay Example for Free

Investigating the Possibility of a Developmental Trend in the Way That Children Describe Themselves Essay This version of Rosenberg’s research into children’s self-descriptions analysed data from semi-structured interviews with two children; Annie (8) and Kirsty (16). The data was interpreted to ascertain whether, as in Rosenberg’s research, children’s self-descriptions show evidence of a developmental progression and whether locus of self-knowledge shifts from other to self as children get older. Substantial support was found for Rosenberg’s theory that children’s self-descriptions become more complex with age and demonstrate a developmental trend. Some support was found for the idea that the locus of self-knowledge shifts from other to self with age but some of the children’s responses ran counter to expectation. Introduction A child’s sense of identity begins to form at a young age and develops throughout childhood. Eleanor Macoby (1980) pointed out that a sense of self emerges gradually as a child develops more complex understandings. Research shows that children differ in the way that they describe themselves at different ages. Bannister and Agnew (1977) and Harter (1983) found that as children get older they use more complex descriptions and include more references to emotions and attitudes. Younger children rely more on physical attributes, activities and preferences. Bannister and Agnew (1977) proposed that as children get older they become better able to ‘distinguish themselves psychologically’ from others (The Open University, 2009, p.20). Harter (1983) proposed that the way children describe themselves follows a developmental sequence which reflects the notion that identity develops in increments throughout childhood. Rosenberg (1979) focused part of his research into the self-concept on investigating this idea of a developmental trend in children’s sense of identity. He interviewed a sample of 8-18 year olds and created categories in which to sort the children’s responses. In keeping with the findings of Bannister and Agnew and Harter, Rosenberg found that younger children used mostly physical descriptions of themselves while older children relied more on character traits. As a result he concluded that ‘the self becomes less and less a perceptual object and more and more a conceptual trait system’ (Murphy (1947), as cited in The Open University, 2009, p.21). He found that, as children get older, they focus more on interpersonal traits and refer more frequently to relationships and inner qualities. Rosenberg also investigated what he called the ‘locus of self-knowledge’ – the extent to which children develop an ‘independent, self-reflective sense of self’ (The Open University, 2009, p.22). This was measured by asking children who knew them best, themselves or someone else. He found that younger children were more likely to claim that another, usually a parent, knew them better. Older children were more self-reliant when it came to judging themselves. Therefore, Rosenberg concluded that the locus of self-knowledge shifts with age from another to the self. Increased self-knowledge would result in more psychological self-descriptions so this relates to the idea of developmental progression being demonstrated in children’s self-descriptions. This study is based on Rosenberg’s research and is an analysis and interpretation of interview data. Children’s responses are allocated to Rosenberg’s categories in order to answer the research question: Do children’s self-descriptions show evidence of a developmental trend? This study will focus on answers to the ‘Who Am I?’ statements but will also pay attention to further interview responses to understand differences in the way children of different ages self-evaluate, view themselves and others and conceptualise an ideal self. This study also examines the concept of a locus of self-knowledge and asks: Does a child’s locus of self-knowledge shift from other to self with age? Method Design Rosenberg’s research design is employed in this study the responses from a semi-structured interview are compared. Participants The participants are Annie (8) and Kirsty (16), pupils from schools in the Milton Keynes area. They were recruited by the ED209 course team who asked school teachers for help in identifying willing participants. Materials A microphone and a video-recorder were used to amplify and record the interviews. Rosenberg’s semi-structured interview, with questions on self-description, self-evaluation, self and others, ideal self and locus-of self-knowledge was used. A sheet of A4 with the words ‘Who Am I?’ printed at the top and ten numbered lines beginning with ‘I’ was provided to enable participants to complete the written exercise. Adaptations of Rosenberg’s categories were used to analyse the responses to the Who Am I? exercise. The analysis of the ‘Who Am I?’ statements was presented on category analysis forms (appendix 1). A consent form was provided for the parents of the children to sign. Procedure The interviews took place in May 2005 during the day. Both children were interviewed by members of the ED209 course team in familiar rooms used by the schools. Annie was accompanied by a classroom assistant. The participants were told that they could stop the interviews at any time and were briefed as to the purpose of the research. A sound recordist and producer were present but efforts were made to ensure that neither they nor the equipment used inhibited the participants. Background noise was occasionally intrusive and recording halted. The final recording of the interviews was edited to ensure a smooth flow. The recorded interviews were listened to several times. The ‘Who Am I?’ statements were identified and transferred onto a pre-prepared category analysis form (appendix 1). The categories, Physical, Character, Relationships and Inner, were adapted from Rosenberg’s (see appendix 2). Each sentence read out by the interviewer was taken to constitute one statement. The statements were then coded. To ensure coding consistency, each statement was reviewed against the criteria for the inner category, then relationships, then character and then physical. Only if there was no way it could be said to fit within the ‘higher’ category was it pushed down. Even if it may have fitted within two categories, the fact that an order of review was applied meant that it would not be considered for a second category if it had already been allocated. Once the categories had been applied, the responses in each column were added up and the percentages calculated so that the results could be compared with Rosenberg’s findings. Next the detailed responses to the interview questions, including the locus of self-knowledge questions, were analysed in the context of Rosenberg’s research findings. The responses of the children were analysed to see if the same patterns were present. Ethics The data collected by the Open University ED209 course team was intended to comply with the BPS ethical code and principles. The children agreed to take part and their parents signed consent forms on their behalf. At the start of each interview the children were informed of their right to withdraw from the research and were told that they could ask for the recording to be stopped at any time. The purpose of the research and they way in which the data would be used was explained to them before the interviews began. Results The first research question was: Do children’s self-descriptions show evidence of a developmental trend? The second research question was: Does a child’s locus of self-knowledge shift from other to self with age? Table 1 shows a comparison between Annie and Kirsty’s self-descriptions. It shows that the majority (60%) of descriptors used by the younger child are about physical characteristics and activities and the remainder are character descriptors. She makes no reference to relationships or inner qualities. The majority of the older child’s responses relate to inner qualities (50%). She spreads the remainder of her descriptions across the physical, character and relationship categories. Self Evaluation When discussing their strengths and weaknesses, Kirsty focused far more on character and relationship descriptions than Annie, who focused on physical attributes, particularly for her weak points (‘my ears my legs’). However, Annie counted her friends as a strength and the fact that she likes ‘being myself’. Self and Others Annie’s awareness of similarity to others in her age group was centred on having the same likes and dislikes. She also identified differences between herself and others in this way. Kirsty talked about having the same experiences as others her own age but identified character and inner traits as distinguishing her from others. Ideal Self Annie’s notion of herself in later life was focused upon what job she might do and how else her time may be spent. Kirsty focused on the character traits that she hoped to have developed. Locus of Self-Knowledge The locus of self-knowledge responses were not straightforward as both participants gave ambiguous answers at times. Annie conceded that in some ways her mother would know her better than she knew herself and Kirsty insisted that her mother knew her just as well as she did herself. Discussion In the ‘Who Am I?’ data, it can be seen that, in accordance with Rosenberg’s findings, the majority (60%) of descriptors used by the younger child are about physical characteristics and activities. Rosenberg found that older children are more likely to use character traits to define the self. In this analysis, Kirsty actually uses a lower percentage of character descriptors than Annie, but this is influenced by the large percentage of inner descriptors used. The data in this study supports Rosenberg’s finding that older children referred more frequently to relationships. He also noticed that older children were more likely to reference inner qualities, which can be seen by the high percentage of Kirsty’s inner descriptors (50%). For the main part, the analysis of the self-description data supports Rosenberg’s findings. Rosenberg found that older children focused on interpersonal traits when describing their strengths and weaknesses. Kirsty’s responses follow this pattern but Annie also mentioned the large number of friends she has as a strength. She also said that ‘being myself’ was a strength which was interesting. The interviewer explored this a little more and she seemed to revert back to describing preferred activities. Further prompting, however, may have ascertained that by ‘being myself’ she meant that she was confident about who she was, which would be a character description. It is difficult to tell at this point if Annie lacks the ability to explain what she means which may affect the results. Rosenberg found that only 36% of 8 year olds mentioned interpersonal traits when talking about the person they would like to become, compared with 69% of 14-16 year olds. Annie and Kirsty’s responses fall into the majority pattern for their age group. Analysis of the data provides a positive answer to the research question, Do children’s self-descriptions show evidence of a developmental trend? The developmental trend as identified by Bannister and Agnew, Harter and Rosenberg, is characterised by younger children relying on physical attributes when describing themselves and older children being able to use more sophisticated and complex descriptions that focus more on psychological characteristics. The data in this study largely supports this theory. The evidence for the locus-of-self-knowledge shifting from other to self with age (as Rosenberg found) is less obvious. When asked about who knows her best at school Annie identifies teachers and parents as being the best judge of her performance, which supports the idea that the locus of self-knowledge in young children rests with another. However, when questioned further about who would be right if they had different answers about Annie’s maths performance, Annie’s responses indicate that she is the best judge of her ability. However, when questioned about her behaviour at home she places the locus of self-knowledge with her mother. Kirsty, somewhat surprisingly given her high percentage of references to inner qualities (indicating high self- knowledge), believes that her mother would know her just as well as she knows herself and explains that her mum has ‘pretty much figured me out’. She decides that any differences in answers about how she would behave at home would be a matter of different interpretations. It is possible that Kirsty is unsure about what is being asked and a reformulation of the questions might provoke different responses. Although Kirsty does not exactly place the locus of self-knowledge within herself, she does not place it with someone else either, and so the data does not, in itself, contradict Rosenberg’s theory. The analysis of the locus of self-knowledge responses produces some support for Rosenberg’s findings but it is not conclusive. However, it is important to remember that this is a sample of only two participants and so the data is not enough to prove or disprove his theory. Another limitation of this study is that the coding reliability was not checked. Coding was applied according to one person’s interpretation. Had the coding of the data been interpreted differently results may have been different for the self-descriptions data (see appendix 3 for alternative coding of Kirsty’s responses. In this instance the evidence in favour of a developmental trend in self-descriptions is present but less compelling). Another consideration lies with the ethics of the research. The issue of informed consent is often difficult in research with children. In the case of a young child, such as Annie, it is not clear that she fully understands the nature of the research, despite the fact that it is described in simpler terms than those used to explain it to Kirsty. It is also possible that the power-imbalance between the interviewers and the participants may prevent them from withdrawing from the interview, even if they are told that they can. Conclusion The results of this study provide support for the idea of a developmental progression in the way that children describe themselves, particularly the analysis of the ‘Who Am I?’ data. Qualitative analysis of the other interview questions, however, while showing some support for Rosenberg’s theory, also presents some deviation from expectations.

Media Influences On Publics Fear Of Crime Media Essay

Media Influences On Publics Fear Of Crime Media Essay Fear of Crime, Violent Behavior And Policy Changes. Mass media is obsessed with crime. Today in our society, as well as other western societies, crime seems to be a topic of fascination. The criminal justice system appears throughout the mass media. From television shows and films to books, newspapers and magazines, crime turns up for everyone to see. By the 1970s the crime or police drama had replaced the western for the most prevalent prime-time television fare (Doyle, 2006). The boundary between crime entertainment and crime information has been blurred progressively more in the past years (Dowler, Fleming, Muzzatti, 2006). Roughly half of the newspapers and television items people come into contact with are concerned with crime, justice or deviance (Doyle, 2006). With the bombardment of criminal images surrounding people every day, the mass media often influences how people look at crime. The picture presented in the media of crime differs from the picture by official and other statistics (Doyle, 2006). How the public fears crime, the violent behavior associated with it and even some policy changes are all thought to be influenced by the media. While there is some debate as to how much influence the media actually has on these things, there is some evidence to suggest there is some connection. The study of media influences on crime has increased substantially throughout the years. In more than 30 years the interest and diversity of the field has expanded substantially, along with our knowledge about the interplay between the media and crime. Throughout the late 1970s and 1980s Gerbner et al (1980) works expanded the knowledge about the relationship between the consumption of various media sources, mainly television, and the fear of crime. Heath and Gilberts (1996) works on how audience traits affects and Liska and Baccaglini (1990) works on direct experience expand the understanding of how different characteristics could affect the medias influence on the fear of crime. When people interact with the mass media, they are often showered with criminal images. It is suggested by many that this bombardment of criminal images people experience can lead to a higher fear of crime. Since many of these images are violent or include violence in some way, they can cause the public to overestimate how much crime there is. Throughout the years, more and more crime has been mentioned in the media. There is a highly skewed presentation of crime highlight stories of select forms of crime (Dowler, Fleming, Muzzatti, 2006). It seems the old adage if it bleeds, it leads is true when it comes to news stories. The most serious and violent crimes are given the best entertaining angles and are presented as hard news, even if the facts are distorted and misrepresented (Dowler, Fleming, Muzzatti, 2006). Often times crime in the media is stylized as infotainment, that is it is presented in a way that is edited, stylized and formatted in a way that is camouflaged as realisti c and informative (Surrette, 2006). People associate the information they see on the television to real life. If the television shows elevated crime rates, real life must also. The line between media crime and real life crime has become blurred. For example, studies in Canada have found that despite significantly lower crime rates, Canadians are more afraid of crime than their American counterparts (Dowler, Fleming, Muzzatti, 2006). It is not quite known why this is the case since both counties enjoy much of the same viewing habits. It seems that maybe the line between reality and media portrayals of crime have blurred even more for Canadians than for Americans. This could lead to potentially remarkable analyses of how people filter news, reality shows and drama to construct their ideas about crime (Dowler, Fleming, Muzzatti, 2006). In addition, television series and movies have seemed to make the move towards criminal themes. These criminal justice themes run throughout many American television shows, each showing a skewed view of justice in which the public absorbs. There is some debate among researchers as to whether or not the mass media actually influences the publics fear of crime. In an earlier study, Gerbner et al (1980) found that individuals who watch mass amounts of television show a higher rate of fear towards their environment than those who watch a less television. A later study conducted in the 2000s seemed to partially reinforce Gerbners early results. Even when controlling for age, gender, race, income, education and marital status, people who watched crime shows regularly showed a significantly higher rate of being fearful of crime (Dowler K. , 2003). On the other hand, the hours of television as the primary source of crime news was not significantly related to the fear of crime (Dowler K. , 2003). The crime portrayed on the television is more violent, haphazard and hazardous than the crime in reality. Those who are exposed to it more internalize these images and develop a mean world view (Dowler K. , 2003). Crime show viewers we re more likely to worry about being sexually assaulted, shot or stabbed and getting killed. On the other hand, Rice and Anderson found a weak association between television viewing and the fear of crime (Dowler K. , 2003). While Dowler himself found that there was a statistically significant relationship between the watching of crime shows regularly and the fear of crime, he also found that it was not a strong relationship (Dowler K. , 2003). Who is viewing the stories and where the person is located influences how much influence the media has on the fear of crime. Heath and Gilbert (1996) suggest that the relationship between the mass media and the fear of crime is contingent on the audience and the message. Large amounts of local crime news increased fear among those who lived in the area while large amounts of non-local crime had the opposite effect (Dowler K. , 2003). Chiricos et al (2000) also found that local and national news affected the fear of crime. They found that the effect of local news was greater for residents of high crime neighborhoods. Also, those who live in high crime areas and watch large amounts of television were more likely to be fearful of crime (Dowler K. , 2003). Other factors, like experience and demographics, influence whether or not media consumption affects the fear of crime. For instance, when a person has a direct experience with a particular crime in a story, he or she is less likely to be influenced by that story. It is when direct experience is lacking that the media influences the fear of crime the most (Liska Baccaglini, 1990). Gerbner et al (1980) found that the relationship between the fear of crime and the amount of television watched was greatest for females and whites. Another researcher also found that the females, whites and the elderly were more likely to be fearful of crime even though they had a lower risk of being victimized (Dowler K. , 2003). As mass media grew in size and number, the fear that the violent images seen on television caused violent behavior seemed to increase as well. From research on video games to violent television shows, trying to understand whether or not violence in the media causes violent behavior has been a topic of vast discussion. For centuries people have been concerned with the corrupting nature of media, dating back to at least ancient Greek and Roman times. Plato cautioned that plays and poetry may have detrimental effects on youth and should be burned (Ferguson, 2010). Throughout history, people have been arguing that violent media could lead to violent or unwanted behavior from those who are exposed to it. In the 1930s social research on the matter began and the Payne Fund studies were released which suggested a link between movie watching and aggressive behavior (Ferguson, 2010). Setting the stage for the debate that was to come, critics noticed a lack of control groups and difficulty meas uring aggression (Ferguson, 2010). Several decades later the debate would really begin to take off with the introduction of the television into society and a few decades later moral crusaders began to link crime waves with the mass production of the device. Violent crime spiked in the late 1970s to the 1980s but even though the rates were comparable to those before 1930, a link was established by looking only at a slice of Americas crime patterns (Ferguson, 2010). In the 1970s video games came onto the market with the launch of first game counsel. Almost immediately debate as to whether violent video games could have an adverse effect on childrens development started. This concern for the violence developing because of the video games at the time was founded since according to the American Psychology Associations pamphlet violent behavior is learned, not genetic (Ferguson, 2010). When Grand Theft Auto was introduced to the market, the debate really began to take off. David Grossman, a respected activist, claims video games desensitize youth to killing because they simulate the real thing. His main argument claims these killing, violent video games mimic combat and the US military actually uses similar devices to desensitize soldiers so they will be more willing to kill an enemy combatant (Ferguson, 2010). He argues that since the military began to use simulators, soldiers in combat are more likely to shoot and kill an enemy soldier than a WWII soldier (Ferguson, 2010). He also claims that exposure to violent media and specifically violent video games can be a predictor of youth violence (Ferguson, 2010). In an extensive meta-analysis study conducted by Anderson et al (2010), they found that violent video games stimulate aggression in players and increase violent behavior later in life. After playing for a short while, Anderson showed that mild aggressive beha vior increased in youth for a short while. After repeated, habitual exposure to the violent game, the youths aggressive behavior became worse and even became physical on occasion. On the other hand, while some researchers have found some positive relationships between violent video games and violent behavior, others have found no relationship or a negative one. Others who have found effects, when looked at closer by critics the relationship disappears when certain factors are accounted for. It is also said that meta-analysis of violent video games produce inconsistent and weak results (Ferguson, 2010). Sherry (2007) found that a meta-analysis on video games produced weak effects and the results were even weaker than for the television (Sherry, 2001). Numerous other researchers produced similar results that violent video games did not have an effect on the violent or aggressive behavior of children and youth. Even with their interactive nature, video games do not produce more of an effect on violent behavior than television or anything else. In the case of television, there is much debate as to whether or not there is a relationship between violent media and violent behavior. While some research has shown that violent television and media have an effect on violent behavior others do not. In a two year longitudinal study done by Hopf and associates, they found that the more frequently children view horror and violent films and the more frequently they play violent video games at the beginning of teenage years, the higher their violence and aggression rates will be at the age of 14 (Hopf, Huber, Weiß, 2008). Other research by Anderson and associates found that exposure to any kind of violent media, whether it is television or video games, increases the risk of violent or aggressive behavior in both immediate and long term contexts (Anderson, et al., 2003). Short-term exposure to violent media increases aggressive thoughts, behavior and emotions (Anderson, et al., 2003). Earlier research results tended to show that shor t term exposure could increase aggression in people (Drabman Thomas, 1974). Many of the studies done throughout the years have shown that exposure to violence on television through film and series increases peoples aggressive and violent behavior but there are a few critics out there claiming the effect is small and/or weak. Political policy changes are also thought to be influenced by the media. Since we are contently surrounded by media texts, it is reasonable to conclude that the media would have some influence on policy. Particularly gruesome, heinous crimes have tremendous appeal to the media. Since these stories sell and are attractive to both consumers and the producers, these types of crimes often saturate the airwaves and print material. The media can construct a new crime problem or can construct a moral panic around a particular crime by twisting and relaying facts. By creating a moral panic or by creating fear and anxiety around a crime, public pressure for solutions to problems are put on political figures. Some researchers found that the presentations of crime news increases pubic pressure for more effective policing and more punitive responses to crime (Dowler K. , 2003). Dowler (2003) also found that those with a college education were more likely to hold non-punitive attitudes. It was su ggested that these people were more likely to recognize the inequality of the justice system (Dowler K. , 2003). Crime news has been long understood to have influence in moving society towards law and order campaigns, increasing social control and punitive responses to criminal conduct (Dowler, Fleming, Muzzatti, 2006). Research has indicated a sophisticated understanding of the interplay between the media and policy (Dowler, Fleming, Muzzatti, 2006). The message from the media outlets is clear: there is a strong support for more critiques of police efforts, harsher measures, stronger laws and/or an increase prison sentences. Although the debate rages on as to whether or not the media actually influence the fear of crime, violent behavior and policy changes, there are some things that future research needs to consider. First of all, one should be careful not to make associations prematurely. Assumptions should be made carefully about the production or reception of media products when the analyses based on the media products themselves (Doyle, 2006). Numerous researchers use the media texts themselves to make assumptions about the production and reception of different forms of media. Many times it is also assumed that the audience taking in the various media forms conforms to a dominant ideology the same way. While this may work for some research, work rooted in various critical theories should avoid this mistake and not assume a homogeneous public (Doyle, 2006). Secondly, one should acknowledge the considerable diversity and complexity in media organizations, production, formats and audiences (Doyle, 2006). Media and crime are both complex entities which researchers need to take into account. Crime in the media is a diverse phenomenon that needs to be accounted for. It shouldnt be oversimplified and unified. It is assumed that crime in the media isnt as varied and complex as other social phenomena. Often times the media reports have a pack mentality in which they try to appeal to a wide population. On the surface this may make it seem as though it is a homogeneous entity but in reality it is more complex. One key flaw in academic and other accounts of crime in the media a unitary, reductionist reading in terms (Doyle, 2006). This flaw should be changed by accounting for the fragments and recognizing that neither the audience nor the media texts themselves are homogeneous. More complex, specific, and contingent way of thinking about crime is needed when thinking about how it is represented in the media (Doyle, 2006). In order to explore effects or influences has been to move away from the construct of a homogenous audience and look directly at the repercussions of representations of crime in the news media in particular political and institutional contexts (Doyle, 2006). Specific media coverage could provide some insight into how the media actually influences the criminal justice system and the public. Political consequences should be considered when looking at influences and effects. It could prove to be easier to analyze effects directly on political events and other institutional contexts. Case studies should be used to show the political effects on political episodes of media coverage in a more specific, localized way (Doyle, 2006). For example, in New York, police and politicians used the media to manufacture a crime wave which served their own ends by resulting in more police resources and tougher laws. Analyzing more direct political and institutional effects of crime and the medial repres ent an advance (Doyle, 2006). It offers perhaps the best way of approaching the question of how news-media coverage contributes to the politics of law and order (Doyle, 2006). It also opens up more questions about the place of crime stories in the lives of individuals, questions that cannot effectively be answered by the fear of crime topics (Doyle, 2006). Lastly, researchers should give more attention to the very substantial interplay between crime news and crime fiction (Doyle, 2006). Most researchers only consider one subject, even though there is often similar and intersecting public concern. These common approaches ignore the fact that these two aspects could be intertwined. Both news and entertainment media texts interact, shape and are shaped by frames of meaning about crime and punishment (Doyle, 2006). Sometimes fictional television shows take their stories from news headlines. These shows incorporate the story of real life and when seen by the public it is often interpreted in that context. Both of these factors seem to be interpreted together by the public as a package. Since these items are absorbed together and not separately from each other, they should also be studied as such. There have been lots of efforts and difficulty to try and isolate and measure influences of the media on crime. For example, many critics have come forward questioning whether or not the media actually influences the fear of crime. It has been widely criticized for the way it operationalizes key concepts, like simply counting the number of hours people watch television and contrasting the attitudes of high viewers and low viewers (Doyle, 2006). Other factors need to be taken into account in order to make sure there is an actual relationship. For example, while it could be suggested that watching lots of television causes fear of crime, it could be that those who are fearful of crime tend to watch lots of television (Doyle, 2006). It is not clear which factor causes the other. While lots of research has been done to try and figure out which way the causation goes, it is more likely that fear and media consumption reinforce each other (Doyle, 2006). In an effort to isolate causality in the media more control has been imposed through the creation of experimental situations (Doyle, 2006). This has mostly been used in violent behavior and television violence relation studies. One key problem with this study is external validity: it becomes difficult to judge how the artificial environment generalizes to the outside world (Doyle, 2006). There is much debate as to whether or not media actually influences crime and criminal behavior. While some researchers contend that the effect of media influence is significant, others claim it is weak, if not nonexistent. Even if we are not influenced by them as strongly as some believe, they are still all around us. Crime is ever present while the lines between reality and the media continue to be blurred. No matter what one believes, one thing is for sure: we are and will continue to be bombarded with media images.